Optional Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Optional - Essay Example It is, therefore, necessary that the government implements a tax-cuts with caution and one of the ways of achieving this is letting the tax cut on the rich expire and extent AMT at a permanent way. In lieu of turning around the living standards of individuals, family and society through promoting economic activity, different national administrations around the world have brought together economists and lawyers to draft government policies whose principal pillar is tax cuts. The most notable of all is that tax cut polices are the ones proposed and enacted by The President George W. Bush’s administration in years 2001-2003. The basic tenet of this ideology is the macro-economist approach of supply-siders that, according to the Laffer’s curve, a reduction in the tax rate especially for the middle class increase their spending, which in turn increases demand that forces supply to increase by the law of demand and supply. Eventually, this leads to an increase in economic activity. Increased economic activity means that the labor market absorbs many people and at a better pay, people pay low prices for commodities, business have more capital to invest, and government c an broaden its tax base by closing tax breaks and other tax leaks. However, there is no empirical backing to this claim, by the respective governments, even after adopting tax cuts on temporary terms. This is explained by the fact that reducing the tax rate actually increases government debt in the long-run, which may cause budgetary problems in the future. The best way of dealing with this is to reduce tax rates and simultaneously reduce government spending in response to reduced government revenue. However, in an effort to ensure equality, welfare and improved living conditions/standards for all, some essential services are not an obligation or mandate of players such as the corporate world, but the responsibility of the government. In this view,

Constitutional Law of the European Union Essay Example for Free

Constitutional Law of the European Union Essay The European Court of Justice is the driving force behind European integration. The ECJ had elaborately defined the doctrines of supremacy and direct effect of the EC Law and provided remedies for damages caused by breach of EC Law by a Member State . Despite the initiatives of the ECJ, there have been conflicts between Community law and national law. Moreover, the ECJ made it clear that the EC law had supremacy over national law in the event of conflict as evidenced in the case of Costa v ENEL, wherein it held that a preliminary ruling by the Italian courts based on their national law would be of no significance. In Simmenthal, the ECJ clarified that the Community law was to take precedence over national law and that any provision of the national law that contravened the Community Law would be rescinded by it. Moreover, the ECJ prohibited the implementation of any national law that was in conflict with the Community law. The ECJ further ruled that no fundamental provision of any national law could challenge the supremacy of a directly applicable Community rule . This supremacy of Community law is one of the constitutive principles of the integration of the European Community legal order and it has been well embedded in the Treaty that established a Constitution for the European Union. The doctrine of supremacy of Community law, the principles of direct effect and uniform applicability are the primary ingredients of the Community. They are fundamental to the promotion of an effective Community legal order and form the unseen pillars of the European Constitution. Further, the doctrine of supremacy is the actual concrete personification of this constitutional power . The national constitutional courts of Member States found it very difficult to adopt the doctrine of supremacy and in the initial stages the Italian and German constitutional courts almost refused to adopt this doctrine into their respective national legislations, because they felt that they would be surrendering their power of constitutional review of secondary community law. Subsequently, the enlargement of the European Union provided a new paradigm to this doctrine of supremacy. This doctrine of supremacy was enforced by the ECJ in Costa v ENEL . This doctrine is a jurisprudential creation of the ECJ. Further, the Court clarified that the EEC Treaty had adopted a new legal system, which the Member States had integrated into their national legislation. Accordingly, the national courts were required to apply the Community law without any deviation and this generated a number of debates in the Member States. Ultimately, it was accepted by the Member States. However, total supremacy over the national constitutional provisions has not been achieved . In Frontini the Italian Constitutional Court had opined that the 1957 Act, which had accepted the provisions of the EEC Treaty, did not breach the Constitution. Moreover, the Italian court reserved to itself the right to review the continuing compatibility of the Treaty with the Constitution . In another case the Italian Constitutional Court, while accepting the precedence of Community law, maintained that the court had competence over any aspect of the relationship between Community law and municipal law . These decisions clearly established that the national constitutional courts had not completely accepted the supremacy of Community law. The German Constitutional Courts voiced their concern over the protection of fundamental rights in the decisions given in Solange I and II and introduced the concept of Kompetenz – Kompetenze. Even in the Banana case the German constitutional Court declined to give up its power to review secondary community legislation in order to protect fundamental rights . In the United Kingdom this doctrine created several problems, because the UK constitution bestows absolute power on Parliament. Further, the UK ratified a dualist policy concerning the relationship between international treaties and national law. Although such treaties were signed by the UK, they were not incorporated into the domestic law of the UK. In order to incorporate the treaties into national laws, the Parliament had to ratify them and this resulted in a problem in respect of accepting the doctrine of supremacy of Community law over national law. In the famous Factortame case the concept of the supremacy of Community law was subjected to a vast amount of discussion. In that case Spanish fishermen had argued that the norms for registering vessels under the Merchant Shipping Act 1988 were discriminatory and in conflict with the provisions of the EC Treaty. The House of Lords refused to grant any interim injunction against the Crown. The applicants in this case claimed that this would violate the Community law and the result was that a reference was made to the ECJ, which ruled in favour of these applicants. The ECJ further held that any piece of legislation in the national law that prevented a court from issuing interim relief would be tantamount to the violation of the Community law . The EOC case dealt with the suitability of the UK statute regarding unfair dismissal and redundancy pay in the broader context of the EC law . The UK law provided different benefits to employees working in full –time and part – time jobs. The appellant in the case, the Equal Opportunities Commission, opined that the statute was discriminating against female employees, which was in contravention of Article 141 of the EC Treaty and to other Community directives. The House of Lords held that the national legislation had violated the EC law and upheld the contention of the EOC. The approach of the European Court of Justice is at variance with the customary doctrine of precedent that is entrenched in domestic law. The objective of the ECJ is to bring about a European Union that follows the same law throughout its Member States and to this end it constantly endeavours to promote the EC Treaty. This could result in a change in the interpretation of legal principle over a period of time. Moreover, the ECJ bases its decisions on the extant circumstances and not on precedent. National courts of Member States in the European Union can obtain a preliminary ruling regarding the interpretation of European Union Law from the ECJ on the basis of the provisions inherent in Article 234 of the EC Treaty. However, it is not the primary objective of the ECJ to take decisions regarding the compatibility between the domestic and European laws. Further, it is also not the primary aim of the ECJ to apply the European Union Law to some specific facts of a case . The ECJ indicates the principle to be applied in a particular case and the case will have to be decided in the originating court, however, the ECJ ruling will have to be implemented by such a court. In the absence of an appeal from a national court, a reference will have to be made by the originating court, in case it is of the opinion that a clarification in respect of European Union Law is required. Nevertheless, there are instances where an ET, EAT or Appellate Court has to make a reference to the ECJ in order to pronounce judgement that is in accordance with the EU law. The function of the advocates general is to aid the judges in their judicial work. They do this by submitting analyses and recommendations regarding the issues raised in a particular case . In addition to the rights conferred on the nationals of the EU Member States by their respective national constitutions, the EU law comprises of another source that grants rights to them. As such the European Union law constitutes a legal system that in addition to being independent also, perhaps more importantly, takes precedence over the national laws of the Member States of the European Union. This European Union law comprises of treaties, which constitute primary legislation and regulations and directives that constitute secondary legislation. The importance of regulations is that they directly require compliance from the Member States without having to be codified into the national laws. However, in respect of the Directives, which are also legally binding, the onus of implementing them rests squarely with the Member States and these Member States have to do so by resorting to the relevant national law legislation on or before the final date set by the EU for such implementation. Accordingly, Article 189 of the European Economic Treaty states that â€Å"A Directive shall be binding, as to the result to be achieved, upon each Member State to which it is addressed, but shall leave to the national authorities the choice of form and methods. The European Court of Justice, subsequent to taking cognizance of the fact that Directives have to be implemented by the Member States, declared that individuals were well within their rights to ensure the implementation of Directives even in the event of failure by the Member States to meet the deadline set by the EU. In addition, individuals were permitted to enforce such rights in the national courts. The Van Gend en Loos decision unequivocally established the fact that in addition to creating obligations for the Member States to implement the Directives it also creates rights for the individual citizens of these Member States . The right of the Member States and the European Commission to proceed against other Member States before the European Court of Justice does not prohibit the lodging of complaints by individuals against the Member State to which they belong in their national courts. In this context, the European Court of Justice ruled that Article 12 of the EEC results in direct effect, which in turn result in the creation of rights for individuals and that these rights had to perforce protected by the national courts. Consequently, individuals have been empowered to ensure that rights granted by the Directives are enforced in the national courts . The offshoot of this is that individuals can ensure the implementation of human rights by resorting to legal action. In the Becker case it was clarified that if there is unconditionality and adequate precision in the provisions of a Directive that bestows individual rights, then individuals can resort to such provisions to contest the relevant national law . Furthermore, in the Francovich case the European Court of Justice established a test in three parts, which was to be utilized in order to ascertain whether the provisions that were inherent in a Directive, were sufficiently precise and unconditional in creating a right that was applicable to individuals. The ECJ has to consider the identity of the persons who are supported by the guarantee and the content of the guarantee. The identity of the person in breach and who is liable to pay the guarantee has also to be ascertained. Private persons and institutes cannot be subjected to the provisions of the Directives, because it is only the state that is subject to the Directives. The decision in the case of Francovich served to establish that damages could be claimed by an individual in a national court, in the event of a Member State’s failure to implement a Directive properly. The ECJ clarified that the spirit of the European law and the protection of rights would become ineffective if an individual failed to secure compensation. Moreover, the States are required to implement Directives wholly and properly. The ECJ decided in Brasserie du Pecheur v. Germany that there must be a sufficiently serious breach by the State in order to determine its liability. This dictum applies to situations where national legislation is implemented improperly and inconsistently with a Directive. In order to determine whether Community law was breached with sufficient seriousness, it is sufficient to demonstrate that the Member State or Community institution had seriously and knowingly ignored the limits to its discretionary power. Some of the factors that the court has to consider are the exactitude and clarity of the rule that was breached, the amount of discretion allowed to the national or Community authorities, whether the damage caused was intentional or not and whether there had been any adoption or rejection of measures that were in violation of the Community law . Member States for whom the Directives are specifically issued should be bound by them. Sometimes Directives can be addressed to one Member State or a group of them, but in general Directives are addressed to all the Member States. The exception to this practice is in respect of Directives that pertain to Common Agricultural Policy. The European Commission initiates a binding legal action in situations where a Member State fails to incorporate the provisions of a Directive into their national legislation or if the national legislation fails to properly fulfill the requirements of the Directive. Previously, the Directives were not adequately binding upon the Member States in their implementation. To address this problem, the ECJ promoted the doctrine of direct effect. Thus even if a Member States fails implement the Directives there is legal initiation under the principle of direct effect. This was clearly established in the case of Francovich v Italy. In that case, the ECJ attributed liability to Italy for its failure to implement a Directive. The Easytalk was a private limited company that had been formed with help from the UK government. It was established in order to encourage students in the EU to come to the UK in order to learn English. This company advertised all over the EU universities by means of pamphlets, in which it was stated that the course instructors would be highly qualified scholars in English with a great deal of teaching experience. A Directive was issued by the EU that prohibited the issuance of advertisements that misled and imparted false information. This Directive was to be implemented by January 2007. However, the UK government failed to implement this Directive by this deadline and in effect this Directive had been ignored by the UK government, because the latter was of the opinion that this Directive was unlawful. Subsequently, a French student, Antoine came to the UK and registered for a course that taught English. However, once the classes commenced, Antoine realized that the faculty comprised of students who were not qualified teachers of English as a foreign language. On being approached, the institute where he had enrolled refused to refund the fees paid by him. The direct effect of directives has been restrained by the concepts of vertical and horizontal effect. Van Duyn and Ratti affirmed that directives only have vertical effect so that an individual who is affected by the states’ failure to implement a directive properly or not at all only has rights against the state and not against a non-state entity or other individuals, as the directive imposes the obligation of implementation upon the state. Therefore a horizontal limitation was placed upon the scope of the direct effect of directives. This principle was addressed in Marshall v Southampton and South West Hampshire Health Authority , in which the applicant who was employed by the Health authority, was required to retire at the age of sixty – two years, while men doing the same work did not have to retire until the age of sixty – five years. Although under national law, by virtue of the Sex Discrimination Act, this was not discriminatory, she succeeded in her claim for unfair dismissal by relying on the Equal Treatment directive, which had not been implemented in the UK. This directive was sufficiently clear to have direct effect but the courts took the opportunity to confirm that a directive may not of itself impose obligations on an individual and that a provision may not be relied upon as such against such a person. Therefore since the health authority was an organ of the state, the directive had vertical direct effect. Since the respondent in this problem is a private limited company, the claimant cannot approach the Commission under the vertical direct effect. However, he can seek justice under the EU law by resorting to the procedure of indirect effect. Since, the UK government had not implemented the Directive; the claimant can approach the national courts of the UK to compel the government to apply the Directive. In respect of damages, the ECJ further held in R v H. M. Treasury, ex parte British Telecommunications plc that parties who had sustained loss as a result of incorrect implementation of a directive by a state, could claim damages for the loss sustained on such an account. In contrast to this, if a state has failed to fulfill its obligations regarding Directives, whether by non-implementation or incorrect implementation, an individual cannot request invocation of the horizontal direct effect of a directive against another individual. Similarly the effectiveness of non-implemented or incorrectly-implemented directives that do not have direct effect through the horizontal limitation has been enhanced through the doctrine of indirect effect, which emerged from Von Colson . In this case the ECJ held that national courts are required to interpret their national law in light of the wording and the purpose of the directive so that the directive is given some effect despite the absence of proper domestic implementation. This principle may be used under two circumstances; first, where the defendant is a state entity but a directive is not vertically directly effective as its provisions are insufficiently precise, conditional and require further state action for their implementation. Second, the provisions of a directive could be indirectly enforced against a non-state entity i. e. it could be applied horizontally as between individuals. The court was confronted with a ‘horizontal’ situation in Marleasing , in which this position was confirmed. Therefore, if national law was in existence that could be read in conformity with a non-implemented directive, then an individual could enforce a legal remedy against another individual through the interpretative route without seeking to enforce the directive directly and encountering the barrier to horizontal effect. In respect of the Easytalk institute the claimant can file a case for breach of contract and false representation in the UK courts in order to obtain redressal for the loss, damage and frustration caused to him. The question arises as to whether the aggrieved individuals can claim damages against the state in the national courts. The ECJ clarified that the state had to pay compensation for the damages caused due to non – implementation of a Directive and that the conditions laid down for such claim of damages must not be less reasonable than what was specified for a domestic claim. Furthermore, the Member State should not unduly complicate the claim process.

How Are Automatic Stabilizers Used To Combat Inflation? :: essays research papers

How are Automatic Stabilizers Used to Combat Inflation?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In today's economy, there are devices present called automatic stabilizers. Automatic stabilizers, are mechanisms which aid in the correction of an economic problem without the interference of anyone or anything. They are perhaps most useful to combat demand - pull inflation. Demand - pull inflation, is when prices rise because the economy cannot produce enough goods to satiate the economy. An automatic stabilizer, that is beneficial to combat such a problem, is a progressive tax. A progressive tax, is a tax that becomes a higher rate for each increasing level of gross domestic product. If such a tax is present within the economy, when the society becomes more prosperous, such as in the situation with demand-pull inflation, the citizens are taxed more, therefore decreasing the marginal propensity to consume, and decreasing consumption. The marginal propensity to consume is the fraction of any change in disposable income spent for consumer goods. If this decreases, demand will not be as high above, or even above where the supply is, therefore reducing the demand - pull inflation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another way to stabilize demand - pull inflation is to reduce government spendings. Government spendings, are the spending that the government make with the tax revenues, and they add to the gross domestic product. An automatic stabilizer that will lower gross domestic product is welfare. As income rises, there are less people who need welfare, therefore reducing the amount of government spending, and lowering the gross domestic product.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Due to such automatic stabilizers as progressive tax rates and the decrease of government spending due to welfare, therefore a decrease in government borrowing, therefore a decrease in the demand for the dollar, therefore a decrease in the interest rate, which would cause a decrease in the foreign demand for dollar, which would cause the dollar to depreciate, therefore lowering inflation due to a less valuable dollar.

Han vs Mauryan

The Chinese Han Dynasty vs. The Indian Mauryan/Gupta Empire The Han Dynasty of China and the Mauryan/Gupta Empire of India in 206 B. C. E to 550 C. E had many social and cultural differences which made them unique societies, but their political structure and form of government seemed to borrow ideas from each other. The social aspects of both empires had a lot in common because gender-roles, family and relationships were looked at in the same way. During the Mauryan/Gupta as well as the Han Dynasty, women were subservient to men and families relied on patriarchs.In both empires there were close knit villages, landowners had power and merchants took second role in the social system. However, the two had their differences. The Mauryan/Gupta Empire put emphasis on caste while the Han Dynasty was based on a social structure. The Mauryan/Gupta Empire’s caste system was an important social bond and a crucial part of the political structure. At the top of the system were the priests, then the warriors and rulers, followed by the merchants, skilled traders and minor officials, after that were the unskilled workers and finally the â€Å"untouchables†, who were outcastes and barely considered as people.The strict caste system provided a network of rules by which people could regulate their lives and activities and also promoted public order which helped politically. The caste system was so strictly enforced that no one could intermarry or be moved up a class so it determined where you would be for all your life. The caste system also played a role in religion which encouraged the use of a caste system rather than people look down upon it. On the other hand, the Han Dynasty relied on a highly structured system of classes.The most powerful was the emperor, the nobles and the military officers, who made up the first class. Next came the farmers and peasants who made up the second tier. Lastly, the third class was made up of merchants, commoners and servants. T his system differed greatly from the Mauryan/Gupta Empire because it was far less definite; the assigned social class for each person dictated their social status but not their wealth or power. This Chinese structure also stressed on level of education rather than where you were socially unlike the Indian system.Even though many of their values were mostly the same, the development and transformation of social structures made them completely different. The Han Dynasty and Mauryan/Gupta Empire were developing similarly in science and technology during this time period. Advances in astronomy and medicine in both civilizations included the calculation of the motion of planets, bone setting, plastic surgery and personal hygiene. Studies in mathematics also came about in the Han and Mauryan/Gupta Empire. In spite of the fact that they were sharing technological advances, the belief systems, philosophies and religions differed greatly between the two.The Mauryan/Gupta Empire had lively ar t, which included many epic poems, and primary religions that suggested unpractical, otherworldly beliefs. The practice of Buddhism and Hinduism flourished during this time because the great ruler, Ashoka, spread Buddhist values and accepted and honored Hindu principles. These religions had practices that could be considered out of this world because of the belief that there are divine forces and beings. On the contrary, the Han Dynasty had restrained art, and separate, more practical belief systems.These belief systems did not have a belief in any supernatural or godly forces but served as lifestyle guides. Confucianism, a philosophical system from the teachings of Confucius, spread because it focused on righteousness and morals rather than gods. Belief systems in the Han Dynasty were formed based on the needs and views of the people. Whereas, the belief systems formed in the Mauryan/Gupta Empire were made to unite humans with the divine. The political structure and forms of govern ment of the Han Dynasty and Mauryan/Gupta Empire shared many of the same ideas.Both had bureaucracies with groups of specialized officials and a centralized government. They were also the same because they had a form of autocratic rule so there was government by a single person that had authority over all others. The two were also the same when it came to expansion; they both expanded their borders during this period. Though there was one big difference, the Mauryan/Gupta had large, strong armies and utilized them while the Han Dynasty had a small army and didn’t feel it was necessary to even have armed forces.Although their ruling styles were very similar, the militaristic values set them apart. The Chinese Han Dynasty and Indian Mauryan/Gupta Empire borrowed government direction and approach from each other but did not influence each other socially or change their cultural identities. During the time period of 206 B. C. E to 550 C. E, the Persian Empire was also taking form . Similarly, this empire had bureaucracy, supported and formed religions and expanded territory. Today, China and India both have heavy influence on the world due to their cultural and technological exchanges connecting them to all parts of the world.

English Learning Methods Essay

Although most people can realize the importance of English in modern life. Mastering English is quite difficult for them, Why? Because they don’t find out a suitable way to learn. I state you about the way to learn English I think it is the best. It is combination of two factors: learning inside the class and learning outside the class. Learning inside the class is very necessary for learners for experience, a good environment for practicing and motivation of studying. Firstly, you should take part fully in class to get knowledge from teachers who can share their valuable experiences for studying English with us, and they also give comment or feed back about your mistakes if you have , they can explain about what you don’t understand the English lessons. Second, class is good environment for studying, is where we can communicate with your friends in English and check your knowledge level, beside when you learn inside the class, you have competition with others, which make you have more motivation for studying but joining in class every day isn’t still enough time for your practice to become a good learner. You should spend more time on practicing yourself at home. Learning English outside is also important. You can study English online at home with threes reasons: not spend much fees, have suitable lesson for each person and have more interesting for lessons. First learning English online at home, which decrease fees for us and don’t much time for moving, second there are many kinds of lesson which are suitable with each learner’s level, there are courses for beginners, both adults and children, as well as more advanced courses for those who work their way up through the lessons. The advanced lessons are also suitable for those who do have the basics of the English language and want to increase their skills in reading, speaking, listening and writing. Thirdly, having many funny activities from English online course. It makes learners more interesting for studying. For example, play funny games such as play cards, puzzle, crossword, or hangman. Moreover, you can watch English film, listen to English news, read English newspaper or chat with native speakers. Many people have the idea that learning English is a difficult process. In fact, the opposite is true and the language is really easy to learn if you spend time on practicing it everyday with above method. You will become a good learner English.

SAT Subject Test Dates 2019 When Should You Take Them

SAT Subject Test Dates 2019 When Should You Take Them SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips When are you planning to take the SAT Subject Tests? If you answered, "I don't know," you're not alone! It's hard to know when the best time is to fit in the Subject Tests with the general SAT, your schoolwork, and everything else you've got going on. Let's take a look at when the SAT Subject Tests are offered in 2019 and when the best dates are for you to take them. As long as you have a plan, you'll be able to balance these tests with all the other things you're up to in your busy life. When Are the SAT SubjectTests Offered? SAT Subject Tests are offered six times a year in the following months: August October November December May June These are the same dates as the general SAT, except for one date in March when SAT Subject Tests are not offered but the general SAT is. The Literature, Science, US History, and Math SAT Subject Tests are offered on all test dates. The language tests and World History test, however, are only offered on some of the dates. This chart breaks down the SAT Subject Test schedule for 2019: May 4th June 1st Aug 24th Oct 5th Nov 2nd Dec 7th Literature âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” Biology E/M âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” Chemistry âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” Physics âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” US History âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” World History âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” Math Level 1 âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” Math Level 2 âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” French âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” German âÅ"” Spanish âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” âÅ"” Modern Hebrew âÅ"” Italian âÅ"” Latin âÅ"” âÅ"” French with Listening âÅ"” German with Listening âÅ"” Spanish with Listening âÅ"” Chinese with Listening âÅ"” Japanese with Listening âÅ"” Korean with Listening âÅ"” Source: The College Board Since there are several subject tests offered on one date, can you take more than one at the same time? Here are the basic rules and conditions: You can take up to three subject tests on the same date.But there are two caveats: You can only take one Listening test per date. Listening tests are always given in the first hour. You can only take one Biology (E or M) test per date; you can't take both on the same date. You may change the test you are taking on test day, unless it's a Listening test. You cannot take a Subject Test on the same date that you take the general SAT. Keeping these conditions in mind, let's talk about popular dates for test takers. When Should You Take SAT Subject Tests? 4 Factors You need to integrate SAT Subject Test Dates with your SAT/ACT, AP exams, and extracurriculars. So what are the best test dates for you to take one? Here are four key factors to consider: #1: Popular Test Dates May and June are popular times to take the SAT Subject Tests. Since each Subject Test requires knowledge of a particular subject, the best time to take one is usually at the end of the school year so that you've alreadystudied that subject. If you're focusing extra attention on that subject for final exams or AP tests, all the better! Your studying can kill two birds with one stone as you prepare for both tests. #2: Content Readiness The SAT Subject Tests are your chance to show subject mastery, whether it's a subject you've taken in school or one that you've learned a lot about on your own. Since these tests align with a subject rather than a grade level, you don't have to wait until your junior year to take one. Instead, you should take them when the content is still fresh and ready in your mind. You might be able to get an excellent score on the Biology Subject Test, for example, after your 9th grade biology class. By familiarizing yourself with the content that's covered on each test, you'll have a sense of when you'll be best prepared to take it. The language tests require a lot of knowledge- at least two or three years of intensive study. Since many fluent or native speakers take the language tests, you should only opt for these if you feel extremely ready. Note thatit is more difficult to score in a high percentile on these tests. #3: Time for Prep As mentioned above, a lot of students benefit from taking the SAT Subject Test as close as possible to a final exam or AP test in the same subject. With all your studying, you'll be fully immersed in the subject matter. Plus, you can join forces with other students in your class. Study groups can be a powerful way to share knowledge,stay motivated, and make sure you're asking the right questions. #4: Balance With Other Tests If you're taking the SAT or ACT in addition to one or more Subject Tests, you have to consider how to balance these tests and the studying you'll put toward them.Since you'll likely want to take the SAT/ACT more than once, be sure to leave available dates for a second or third attempt. One possible testing schedule could look like this: Sample Testing Schedule Junior Year October: Take the PSATMarch: Take the SAT for the first timeMay: Take the SAT Subject Tests and AP Exams, as well as school finalsJune: Take the SAT for the second time Senior Year October or November: Take the SAT for the third time.As you saw in the chart above, some of the Language tests are usually only offered in November,so keep this in mind if you're taking one of those. If you're taking the ACT, you could take it in February, April, June, and/or July of your junior year, and again in September or October of your senior year. Remember, you don't have to wait until junior year to take the SAT Subject Tests, but it's usually best totake them in May or June so that they coincide with the end of an academic course in whatever subject is relevant to your test. You can also take the Subject Tests again in the fall of your senior year.While these dates might be too late for early action deadlines, they should be in time for regular decision deadlines. The only downside with waiting until the fall of your senior year is that you won't know your SAT Subject Test scores until your college list has already been mostly finalized. Key Takeaways: When to Take SAT Subject Tests Figuring out a schedule and getting your SAT Subject Tests finished in advance of college deadlines is beneficial for your applications and personal stress levels. By knowing your deadlines and creating a flexible study schedule, you'll be able to figure out the best time you can take the test as well as when you'll get your score from it. Your Subject Test dates shouldn't be a random decision; rather, they should be made deliberately, based on your content readiness, the time you need to prep, and how much balance you'll need as you also study for the general SAT/ACT. What's Next? Now that you know all the upcoming SAT Subject Test dates, it's time to learn more about all the subjects you can test in. When are you planning to take the SAT or ACT? Learn about the best test dates for taking these important tests. Did you know that some colleges have test-flexible policies that allow you to send SAT Subject Test scores in place of the general SAT? Check out the full list of test-optional and test-flexible colleges here. Need a little extra help prepping for your Subject Tests? 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Free Essays on A Masterpiece From a Masterpiece

â€Å"When he wielded a sword, no matter how blooded and hard-edged the blade his hand was too strong, the stroke he dealt (I have learned) would ruin it. He could reap no advantage† (Heaney 181). The epic poem Beowulf translated by Seamus Heaney tells the story of a hero named Beowulf, who rids the Danes of many monsters. This Anglo-Saxon story has become one of the most important Old English pieces. Throughout the epic, the Anglo-Saxon story teller uses many elements to build a certain depth to the characters. One of the many themes of the story is Biblical against Paganistic. Throughout history, this book has been translated many times, however, the themes of the book have for the most part stayed the same. Through time the rewriting and touching up by various sources causes the characters to portray more Christian characteristics. Seamus Heaney uses both Biblical and Paganistic views throughout the story to describe certain things. Grendel is Biblically and Paganistically described in this excerpt: So times were pleasant for the people there until finally one, a fiend out of hell, began to work his evil in the world. Grendel was the name of this grim demon haunting the marches, marauding round the heath and the desolate fens; he had dwelt for a time in misery among the banished monsters, Cain’s clan whom the Creator had outlawed And condemned as outcasts. For the killing of Abel The Eternal Lord had exacted a price:†¦(Heaney 9) The Biblical reference in the epic serves to give the reader an idea of the extent of Grendel’s evil declared to him because of the past. The Paganistic views are used to help the reader by trying to give a logical explanation for Grendel’s murderous behavior. This type of writing is exhibited well within the whole book. In this the epic poem there are many characters introduced. There are three dynasties from which of the characters come from: the Danes, the Geats, and the Swedes. Al... Free Essays on A Masterpiece From a Masterpiece Free Essays on A Masterpiece From a Masterpiece â€Å"When he wielded a sword, no matter how blooded and hard-edged the blade his hand was too strong, the stroke he dealt (I have learned) would ruin it. He could reap no advantage† (Heaney 181). The epic poem Beowulf translated by Seamus Heaney tells the story of a hero named Beowulf, who rids the Danes of many monsters. This Anglo-Saxon story has become one of the most important Old English pieces. Throughout the epic, the Anglo-Saxon story teller uses many elements to build a certain depth to the characters. One of the many themes of the story is Biblical against Paganistic. Throughout history, this book has been translated many times, however, the themes of the book have for the most part stayed the same. Through time the rewriting and touching up by various sources causes the characters to portray more Christian characteristics. Seamus Heaney uses both Biblical and Paganistic views throughout the story to describe certain things. Grendel is Biblically and Paganistically described in this excerpt: So times were pleasant for the people there until finally one, a fiend out of hell, began to work his evil in the world. Grendel was the name of this grim demon haunting the marches, marauding round the heath and the desolate fens; he had dwelt for a time in misery among the banished monsters, Cain’s clan whom the Creator had outlawed And condemned as outcasts. For the killing of Abel The Eternal Lord had exacted a price:†¦(Heaney 9) The Biblical reference in the epic serves to give the reader an idea of the extent of Grendel’s evil declared to him because of the past. The Paganistic views are used to help the reader by trying to give a logical explanation for Grendel’s murderous behavior. This type of writing is exhibited well within the whole book. In this the epic poem there are many characters introduced. There are three dynasties from which of the characters come from: the Danes, the Geats, and the Swedes. Al...

The Chemistry of Changing the Color of Egg Yolk

The Chemistry of Changing the Color of Egg Yolk Chickens and other poultry naturally produce eggs with pale yellow to orange yolks, largely depending on their diet. You can change the color of an egg yolk by changing what the chicken eats or by injecting a fat-soluble dye into an egg yolk. Egg Color and Nutrition Eggshell and yolk color are unrelated to the nutritional content or flavor of an egg. The shell color naturally ranges from white to brown depending on the breed of chicken. Yolk color depends on the diet fed to the hens. The shell thickness, cooking quality, and value of an egg is not affected by its color.​ Can I Dye Egg Yolks? The short answer is yes, you can dye them. However, because egg yolks contain lipids, you need to use a fat-soluble dye. Ordinary food colors can be used to change egg white color, but wont spread throughout an egg yolk. You can find oil-based food dyes at Amazon and at cooking stores. Simply inject the dye into the yolk and allow time for the color to permeate the yolk. Changing Yolk Color at the Source If you raise chickens, you can change the color of the yolks of the eggs they produce by controlling their diet. Specifically, you control the carotenoids  or xanthophylls they eat. Carotenoids are pigment molecules found in plants, responsible for the orange of carrots, red of beets, yellow of marigolds, purple of cabbages,  etc. Certain commercial pigments are available as supplements added to feed to influence egg yolk colors, such as  BASFs   Lucantin(R) red and Lucantin(R) yellow. Natural foods also affect yolk color. Yellow, orange, red, and possibly purple may be obtained, but for blue and green you likely have to resort to synthetic dyes. Yolk Color Ingredient nearly colorless white cornmeal pale yolks wheat, barley medium yellow yolks yellow cornmeal, alfalfa meal deep yellow yolks marigold petals, kale, greens orange to red yolks carrots, tomatoes, red peppers Foods That Naturally Influence Egg Yolk Color    Hard Boiled Green Egg Yolks You can get grayish green egg yolks by hard boiling eggs. The discoloration results from a harmless chemical reaction in which hydrogen sulfide produced by sulfur and hydrogen in the egg whites reacts with iron in the yolks. Few people consider this an attractive food color, so you may wish to prevent this reaction by immediately chilling eggs with cold water after hard boiling them.

Business Management Affairs Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Business Management Affairs - Coursework Example A sole proprietorship brings the authority of running and controlling business activities to a single individual who can make important and minor decisions, control business environment and change policies where necessary. The accounting requirements and legal rules applicable on sole proprietors are less rigid and complex as compared to partnerships and companies. It is also considered to be on e of the cheapest forms of setting up a business (Gitman et al 2008). The advantages and disadvantages of sole proprietorship, however, need a deeper and keen observation to form a decision based on the examination of the three available options for us. This recommendation would provide advantages and disadvantages of sole trader, Limited Liability Company and partnerships. It would further conclude as to which venture is better for the organization. Advantages of a Sole Trader As highlighted above, there are a number of benefits that sole proprietorship brings for the sole owner of the busin ess. The first and the most rewarding benefit that this kind of business brings is the Controlling power that the owner receives. Sole trading maintains the highest level of autonomy in terms of running the business, choosing activities, methods and making autonomous decisions. A sole proprietor enjoys the autonomy of running the business in a manner that he wishes or considers appropriate to do so. A decision made by sole proprietor is not challenged by others in normal circumstances. The interference of other parties is less likely to influence the decisions of a sole trader and hence, the level of independence is upheld when setting up a business as a sole trader (Mifflin 2004; Gitman et al 2008). The second most attractive effect of dealing as a sole trader is the ability and right to retain the whole profit earned by the business. The sole traders are not required to distribute whole or part of their profits as required in the partnerships and companies. Another benefit that so le traders enjoy is the privacy of their data and business records. The companies are required to publicize their data and submit the annual reports to the companies’ house. The sole trader is free from such formalities required by the law or the stock market rules. It is also argued that sole proprietors are more responsible and specialist in terms of the nature and size of the business they are managing. The argument is supported by the view that sole proprietors are individually responsible for the profits and losses their business makes. Hence, the owners try to exercise such systems and controls which assure the long-lasting survival and profits of the business. In that, sole traders are also quicker and more efficient in making decisions about their business. Their observation of the customer’s demands and expectations help them in making informed judgements of what may help in the long run success of their business. They implement policies and change which aid t he business’s aim (Toit et al 2007; DeFrancesco 2006). Disadvantages of Sole Trader The advantages are not enjoyed without the risks of certain disadvantages surrounding the sole trading. Sole responsibility for the liabilities and losses is one the basic disadvantage that sole traders face. The sole proprietorship, further, does not acquire the separate legal entity status which disables such

Dispute Settlement (CIvil Suit) GP - Unit 2 Research Paper

Dispute Settlement (CIvil Suit) GP - Unit 2 - Research Paper Example pany is incorporate in State X, and the factory being used in State Z belongs to State X, therefore the company has the most real connection to the contract (Hillman, 2009). This implies that the state has the most jurisdictions over the case being heard. The closest and most real connection rule is used by courts to reasonably determine the party that has the biggest connection to the case being disputed. State X could also state that it is the one being sued, so it has a bigger confection that the other parties to the case. Conversely, the lawyers representing State Y would argue that proper law should be used to determine which country should hear the dispute. Commonly, proper law is the basic rule used to resolve most jurisdiction arguments, and it involves the terms used in the contractual argument (Frey and Frey, 2001). The parties in this case already agreed that all disputes regarding the agreement would be heard in State Y, which means that proper law gives State Y jurisdiction over the case. The Doctrine of Proper law is used to determine the intentions of the parties to a contract as to which jurisdiction should govern the dispute being resolved. This means that a court will look at the wording of the contract to determine what the parties intended the lawsuit to be decided. State Z would also argue for the closest and most real connection to the case when the dispute a as to where the jurisdiction of the case is argued. From the case facts, it is noted that the factory was to be built in State Z and burnt down in the said State. The Lawyers for the state would argue that since the contract involves building in State Z, and the events occurred in this state, there is the realest connection to the case, so the jurisdiction should be there’s. Finally, State Q would also argue that the closest and most implied connection is that the nationalities of the people killed in the tragedy came from its jurisdiction; therefore the dispute should be decided in

School competitors ERCI Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

School competitors ERCI - Essay Example By comparing the positive and negative attributes, a comparative estimation was done which highlighted on the competitive strategies, objectives of the individual schools as well as the efficiency and defensive moves which can help ERCI to gain market share by attracting more students internationally. ERCI on understanding its competitors’ strategies would restructure and implement their own strategies which would work as an advantage to them (ERC Institute, 2015). A survey was executed where the students of ERCI sampled 100 odd students from varied background to fill in a questionnaire which they analyzed to determine the student’s demand for educational school and what were the features they are more reluctant on while selecting a particular school to study in. The sample group had individuals from countries like Singapore, Vietnam, Korea and China who are students in Singaporean school. The main focus was on the survey method where the students were questioned on their decision making on selecting the specific schools they study in. The focus of the descriptive analysis was on the fees structure, the satisfactory attributes of the schools as well as the educational programs and certificates provided by them. Most of the students surveyed were males and were interested in further studies. 68.5% of the students were aware of the educational programs and attributes of the schools through the agents. Further, the sales manager of ERCI wa s interviewed to judge the recruiting and managing procedures for the international students. It was found that those students from India and China show greater interest in further studies internationally. They tend to seek information about the global schools through educational agencies in their respective countries and hence the Singaporean schools contact these agents to promote themselves and attract greater number of candidates. On the other hand, there are part time educational facilities in Singapore

Money and banking Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Money and banking - Research Paper Example Despite the government’s efforts to prevent the collapse of the banking system, it did not successfully restore economic growth; the United States entered a deep recession in December 2007 that extended up to June 2009 (Kroszner and Melick 6). FED used the three tools of monetary control: open market operation, reserve requirement, and discount rate to counteract the progression of the financial crisis. Figure 1: The Graph showing the financial crisis between 2007 and 2007 (Source: Gowland 33) The graph above shows that there was constant recession between 2007 and 2009. Financial recovery began to be experienced as from march 2009. Open market operation The most appropriate monetary policy that was used to counter the financial crisis of 2007-2009 constituted the increase the monetary base. Open market operation (OMO) is an instrument of monetary policy, which involves selling and purchasing of marketable securities (Stock and Mark 11). These transactions are conducted in the open market by the central bank as an instrument of controlling the monetary system. Open market operations target the cash balances of held by commercial banks and other non-bank financial institutions including their tills and in relation to their excess reserves at the central bank. The central bank sells its holdings of the government securities to commercial banks to reduce excess reserve held by commercial banks. When the central bank anticipates liquidity deficiency, it injects additional liquidity by purchasing from the existing stock of the government securities. Decreasing the monetary base during the 2007-2009 financial crisis involved the reduced supply of credit, which was used to facilitate the adjustments in financial market in order to achieve equilibrium in money demand and supply. The Federal Reserve had to sell large quantities of securities that were necessary to achieve decreased supply of credit (Stock and Mark 22). Fed would also sold high-quality securities to minimize Fed’s credit risk and the public would be informed that the expansion in the monetary base is temporary; thus, the composition of Federal Reserve’s balance sheet and size of the monetary base would be restored to normal after financial markets and economic activity begin to normalize. The Federal Reserve used the tool of open market operations with an objective of supporting proper functioning of credit markets, reduce the pressure on long-term financial markets and make financial conditions accommodative by selling long-term securities for the Fed’s portfolio. Figure 2: The Open Market Operations Graph (Source: Stock and Mark 21) i represents the nominal rate of interest, Dm represents money demanded and Ds represents the money supplied. The Federal Reserve varies the rates of interest to ensure maintenance of demand and supply of money with the aim of preventing financial crises. Discount Rate The second tool of monetary control that Fed used durin g the financial crisis is the discount rate. Under this policy, the bank can borrow reserves from the Federal Reserve at their discount windows (Stock and Mark 18). These rates are set by the Boards of Directors of the Reserve Banks, but the rates must be subjected to determination and review by the Federal Reserve Board. The Federal Rese

Elderly as a vulnerable population Research Paper

Elderly as a vulnerable population - Research Paper Example Recent reports such as the Health Ombudsman’s Care and Compassion report and the revelations about care at hospitals in Staffordshire have highlighted shocking examples of failings in NHS and care services. The new guidelines have been produced in collaboration with the Care Quality Commission, ADASS and Royal Colleges of Nurses and GPs as well as frontline staff to develop practical guidance for staff across the NHS. â€Å"This guidance has been developed with staff and stakeholders to ensure they address the day-to-day safeguarding issues facing staff and managers. Small changes like ensuring all staff are aware of the full range of all the safeguarding procedures in place at their organisation can make a real difference to patients.† â€Å"As the professional regulator for nurses and midwives we are committed to strengthening the safeguarding of adults and welcome this new material to further support the professionals who care for them. â€Å"Having contributed to the work of this health advisory group, we are confident these newly published materials will be of interest to a wide range of professionals and will support them in their understanding, practice and decision-making in relation to safeguarding

Money and banking Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Money and banking - Research Paper Example Despite the government’s efforts to prevent the collapse of the banking system, it did not successfully restore economic growth; the United States entered a deep recession in December 2007 that extended up to June 2009 (Kroszner and Melick 6). FED used the three tools of monetary control: open market operation, reserve requirement, and discount rate to counteract the progression of the financial crisis. Figure 1: The Graph showing the financial crisis between 2007 and 2007 (Source: Gowland 33) The graph above shows that there was constant recession between 2007 and 2009. Financial recovery began to be experienced as from march 2009. Open market operation The most appropriate monetary policy that was used to counter the financial crisis of 2007-2009 constituted the increase the monetary base. Open market operation (OMO) is an instrument of monetary policy, which involves selling and purchasing of marketable securities (Stock and Mark 11). These transactions are conducted in the open market by the central bank as an instrument of controlling the monetary system. Open market operations target the cash balances of held by commercial banks and other non-bank financial institutions including their tills and in relation to their excess reserves at the central bank. The central bank sells its holdings of the government securities to commercial banks to reduce excess reserve held by commercial banks. When the central bank anticipates liquidity deficiency, it injects additional liquidity by purchasing from the existing stock of the government securities. Decreasing the monetary base during the 2007-2009 financial crisis involved the reduced supply of credit, which was used to facilitate the adjustments in financial market in order to achieve equilibrium in money demand and supply. The Federal Reserve had to sell large quantities of securities that were necessary to achieve decreased supply of credit (Stock and Mark 22). Fed would also sold high-quality securities to minimize Fed’s credit risk and the public would be informed that the expansion in the monetary base is temporary; thus, the composition of Federal Reserve’s balance sheet and size of the monetary base would be restored to normal after financial markets and economic activity begin to normalize. The Federal Reserve used the tool of open market operations with an objective of supporting proper functioning of credit markets, reduce the pressure on long-term financial markets and make financial conditions accommodative by selling long-term securities for the Fed’s portfolio. Figure 2: The Open Market Operations Graph (Source: Stock and Mark 21) i represents the nominal rate of interest, Dm represents money demanded and Ds represents the money supplied. The Federal Reserve varies the rates of interest to ensure maintenance of demand and supply of money with the aim of preventing financial crises. Discount Rate The second tool of monetary control that Fed used durin g the financial crisis is the discount rate. Under this policy, the bank can borrow reserves from the Federal Reserve at their discount windows (Stock and Mark 18). These rates are set by the Boards of Directors of the Reserve Banks, but the rates must be subjected to determination and review by the Federal Reserve Board. The Federal Rese

Tremors Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Tremors - Assignment Example The only thing that remains unchanged in this condition is amplitude. On the other hand, tremors can be described in various ways. There are four distinctive forms of tremors including rest tremor, intention tremor, chorea, and athetosis. The various forms are grouped based on characteristic moment or the situation of occurrence (Abdo et al., 2010). The resting tremor is identified with various characteristics. It can be perfectly noticed when the affected body part is not in motion and when there is no influence of gravity. The other notable thing is that this type of tremor usually disappears during voluntary actions (Abdo et al., 2010). The tremor may also be activated through eye closure or distraction. In some cases, the tremor is observed in the arm when the affected person is walking. The other characteristic is that this type of tremor can be extremely focal (Abdo et al., 2010). The other type of tremor is intention tremor. The tremor occurs through controlled movements. The main characteristic of this tremor is that its amplitude increases wi th time in the movement until the anticipated target is reached (Abdo et al., 2010). It is easily noticed in patients as they engage in various forms of movements. On the other hand, chorea is characterized by random movements. The movements are involuntary and experience some form of interruption. The random movement is as a result of the difference in timing, duration, direction, or the anatomic location (Fung & Wong, 2012). Such random movements may occur from one muscle to the other, in the neck, face, and tongue. The other form of tremor is athetosis. It is described as slow, uninterrupted, and involuntary movement that hinders continuance of a normal posture (Fung & Wong, 2012). The movements are usually smooth and the flow is not interrupted at any stage. The assessment and diagnostic tools used in evaluating a patient are

My Childhood Days Essay Example for Free

My Childhood Days Essay It was a green world where I was born. I was born and raised in a small town which could almost know as countryside. Now, the small town has already collapsed and turned into a developing-city. It is so sad that I can only recall my childhood days in my mind instead of visiting the small town. It was a small town with warm-hearted villagers. We were all friends and always share our foods and games. Mak Kwan had the most famous cooking while En. Chong could fly the kite highest. Hmm†¦ I could still smell the curry in the air! My brother and I, we used to rush to Mak Kwan’s home and asked for curry when we smell it. Mak Kwan never decline and always offers us a big bowl of curry to share with our family. The satisfaction is so hard to describe. In my childhood days, I loved to fish in the rivers. Especially hand-fishing! I never like to fish with the rods because it is too messy. Although I like to fish, I am not good at it. So, it was always a big surprise for me when I succeeded to catch a fish. It made me smile all the day because I was over the moon! I usually went fishing with my brother. Not like me, he was good at hand-fishing. He could always catch a basket-full of fish. But, we only chose a fish to bring home and let the others go. Brother said that this was to make sure that there are always fishes in the rivers. One day, I watched â€Å"Recess† and I was so impressed by the tree-house. I asked for permission to build a tree-house, and my father promised to make me one! God is so good to me! My dad said that it was his dream when he was small too, so, he tried to make his and my dream came true. Then, we started to proceed. First, we selected a tree which was suitable to build a tree-house. After that, we drew a simple blue-print of the tree-house. We chopped down some trees and cut them into boards (it was not encouraged to cut down trees at that time, but no one stopped us because everyone was excited to see the tree-house). After three months, it was done! Not as luxurious as the one in â€Å"Recess†, but it was pretty good. At that time, I thought that I would become a good architect because I could design and build. Now, I learned that I was naive and stupid. In my childhood days, it was not only my playground, but also my safe haven when I was scolded by my parents. It use d to be my home to home. In the small town I lived, there was a small jungle. My brother and I enjoyed jungle trekking and explored some new things in the jungle. We had an album named ‘Jungle Diary’. We wrote down all the interesting incident during the exploration. We also collected the unique leaves, sticked it in the album and did some notes. We also liked to observe the animals’ lifestyle. We had an old digital camera, we shot the photos of the birds and wrote down the characteristics. It was fun. One time, we followed a deer along and accidentally went in too far into the jungle. We got lost! It was a terrible incident, I absolutely don’t want to recall it. In my childhood days, all the children in the village loved to fly kites. As I said before, En. Chong could fly the kites highest. So, he taught us how to fly the kites high in the sky. It was all about control. If the string is too tight, It breaks, but if it is too loose, it can’t go high. Just like our life. In a windy season, we organized a small kite-flying competition. Although it was small, everyone took it seriously. Because the design and beauty of the kites would be judged, we had to do it on our own. No shop would sell the kites at that time to prevent us from cheating. Of course, En. Chong was the busiest person because everyone asked for his help to make sure the kites could fly. En. Chong is a selfless person, he never declined to teach. He said that he was happy that many people tried to learn the way of making a good kite. It was not easy as what we thought, I failed three times before I got it. It was a big day, the competition. I didn’t win the first p lace, but it was a very memorable incident. I am not going to forget it. There were else more funny and wonderful memories in my childhood days. Unfortunately, kid nowadays can’t experience these funny things anymore. In the city now, people don’t even bother to know their neighbour’s name. The river is polluted, the tree with tree-house is gone, no more jungle for us to explore, and how often can we see the kites in the sky? They said it is the inevitable price for the modernization and industrialization. Yes, thanks to the development, and the pollution. I am glad that I was born in the 90s. Shame for the 00s, all they have is the internet. In the time comes, we will learn that how much hurts we had brought to our Mother Earth.

Electronic Media And Youth Violence

Electronic Media And Youth Violence Electronic media has forgotten Ethics and Social values, revision of media suitable for viewers through recommendations for producers and censor board. Media needs to be aware of the effects caused by their negligence and the inactive censor board. Nudity and violent footages, dramas and soaps exploiting and distracting the youth, scenes containing smoking and drinking shots, spreading wrong news before time and usage of copyrighted footage without permission should be stopped. One whole generation of the world is learning from electronic media and has learnt entirely immoral and incorrect information. This needs to be prevented in order to save next generations. Recommendations are given by interviewing executive producers, censor board executives and other directors. Executive Summary Electronic media has forgotten Ethics and Social values, revision of media suitable for viewers through recommendations for producers and censor board. Media needs to be aware of the effects caused by their negligence and the inactive censor board. Nudity and violent footages, dramas and soaps exploiting and distracting the youth, scenes containing smoking and drinking shots, spreading wrong news before time and usage of copyrighted footage without permission should be stopped. One whole generation of the world is learning from electronic media and has learnt entirely immoral and incorrect information. This needs to be prevented in order to save next generations. Youth is easily deceived, because it is quick to hope. Aristotle The youth is getting the wrong path by the use of this E-Media. Our main aim is to protect our youth from the dangerous effects of E-Media. In E-media we will target specifically the TV media which is accessible by the whole family especially the youth. Further in youth TV is mostly watched by the women of the family. These effects are either caused intentionally or by the negligence of E-media personals. Intentional effects are either for the promotion of their channels. The E-Media personals are displaying the unethical dramas, either the stories are distracting the youth or the scenes of the drama are disturbing and unethical. They provoke the female and male relationships which are considered unethical in our society. Most of the dramas and soaps are based on love stories and relations of married women with young guys. Some TV shows are provoking aggressiveness in our youth. We will mention a program of ARY MUSIK named LIVING ON THE EDGE. This program consists of unethical, immoral and non islamic dares given to the youth of Pakistan. That is done to provoke aggressiveness and to bring our youth to the level of the unethical youths of western countries. He is trying to copy the programs like FEAR FACTOR, RHOADIES etc. Similarly the E-Media personals are provoking nudity. Either that nudity is in full form or half nudity. We use the term half nudity for the scenes in which women or men are wearing inislamic clothes. Wearing sleeveless, wearing Capri, uncovered hair, uncovered belly etc is completely inislamic. Hereby we will mention some channels that have bought the licenses of western movie channels and are showing scenes containing kisses and some other unethical scenes. Channels are ARY DIGITAL who has recently bought license of HBO. Plus there are our cable operators who are showing unethical channels at midnight and at day time. Research methodology is based on interviews and questionnaire. Interviews are conducted from the media personals which include producers, directors, editors and executive producers of different TV channels. And questionnaires are floated among general public to gather their views about todays E-Media. Majority of the people have opposed medias current role. They want it to be made better by some central body. They want the media to be unbiased, responsible and correct. More entertainment channels should be introduced and number of news channels should be decreased as they are creating hypertension. Infotainment quota should be increased. Programs provoking aggression should be banned. Media should not be biased. Producers should show the real culture of our society. Channels should register their ratings. Channel owners involved in unethical and immoral airing should be penalized. Censor board should be made active. Censor board should penalize the parties distracting the youth. Censor board should take strict notice of the cable operators. E-Media is a very important sector of Pakistan. Along with the advantages of E-Media there are many disadvantages. These disadvantages should be eliminated and E-Media should be utilized to its best. Pakistans E-Media has all the capacity to be among the best. Hence everything is up to censor board. It should be made active and should be given the authority of penalizing and banning. It should take a serious notice of all the activities carried out by the E-media personals. INTRODUCTION Electronic Media Electronic media are that utilize electronics or electromechanical energy for the end user (audience) to access the content. This is in contrast to static media (mainly print media), which are most often created electronically, but dont require electronics to be accessed by the end user in the printed form. The primary electronic media sources familiar to the general public are better known as video recordings, audio recordings, multimedia presentations, slide presentations, CD-ROM and Online Content. Most new media are in the form of digital media. However, electronic media may be in either analog or digital format. Devices such as televisions, computers and cd-roms that make information available to people. Importance In October 2003, the British humanitarian organization Christian Aid released a report that $4 billion in Iraqi funds, which had been earmarked for reconstruction of the country, had disappeared. The Coalition Provision Authority (CPA), the U.S. controlled body that ruled Iraq at the time, was relegated with handling that money. An examination of financial records between June 2003 and October 2004 showed poor bookkeeping and investigators found indicators of potential fraud, the report said At the time, the CPA vigorously denied the accusations. By June 2004, the amount of money gone missing had more than doubled from four to almost nine billion dollars. This story was reported with minimal coverage when the announcement was first released. As the investigation progressed, the story of the missing billions was reported several times during the summer months of 2004 and again in January 2005. However, it was never given prominence in any news medium. The writers at Faithful Progressive called it the biggest and single most under-reported story of the last year. News Media and Democracy In a democracy an informed public is of critical importance. In matters regarding the self-interests of the citizenry and of the nation as a whole, knowledge is key in making decisions regarding participation in the process of democracy. Indeed, failing to report important news, or reporting news shallowly, inaccurately, or unfairly can leave people dangerously uninformed. The mass media of today has tremendous power within society. What and how information is distributed can have indelible consequences for individuals and society as a whole. As such, control of media outlets is regarded as a valued form of property for those seeking political or economic power. Among other sources of power, it is important to note that mass media has the ability to: attract and direct attention to problems, solutions, or people that can favor those with power; it can confer status and confirm legitimacy; it can be a channel for persuasion and mobilization (Graber, 33). This represents an incredible amount of power, and over the past twenty years or so, people have taken control over these outlets for the sole purpose of attaining both political and economic power. International In the United States, there are three twenty-four hour news networks. President Bill Clinton stated it well in a response to the question of the condition of todays media. He stated, The thing I worry about most is that people will have all the information in the world but wont have any way of evaluating itThats what I consider to be the most significant challenge presented to all of you by the explosion of media outlets in the Information Age. COMPARISON WITH PRINT MEDIA Illiteracy According to United Nations report Pakistan has 55% literacy rate. This makes it 160th country in world. Because of low literacy rate people cannot read the printed news. This gives an edge to electronic media over print media. Media of future Electronic Media has a clear edge over print media even if new media (for eg. The Internet) is not included in it. Print media is more of a habit with people and still caters to a sizeable population. But electronic media offers a lot of choice to the people, especially to the youth (GEN Y), the largest growing segment of our population and more importantly, has the ability to maintain the pace at which the preferences and demands of the Gen Y changes. The shrinking readership of the print publications perhaps is testimony to the changing media consumption pattern of the people today. Although we dont see an immediate threat to the print media, more so because it is a centuries old media, yet we believe it definitely is not the media of the future. Moreover, electronic media is visually more appealing and more effective in not only conveying a message but by virtue of being a frequency medium, is also effective in registering it, thus ensuring high brand recall amongst viewers poten tial customers. For the advertisers and advertising agencies, it provides exciting opportunities to experiment with new and innovative ideas which reduces the medias dependence on traditional source Which is best? It depends on which area you are in. In rural areas, where there is no technology, print is better, but for the urban areas, electronic media are the best. Print media was supposed to have died 10 years ago, but that has not happened. In terms of mobility and cost print media is better than electronic media. But in terms of speed, coverage and reliability, electronic media are the best. Newspaper is no longer essential, while attending the usual morning business, in the toilet. Laptop is the in thing; one can browse as many e-papers as desired. IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM New technology has many social and educational benefits but caregivers and educators have expressed concern about the dangers young people can be exposed to through these technologies. To respond to this concern, some states and school districts have, for example, established policies about the use of cell phones on school grounds and developed policies to block access to certain websites on school computers. Many teachers and caregivers have taken action individually by spot-checking websites used by young people, such as FACEBOOK, YOUTUBE. This brief focuses on the phenomena of electronic aggression: any kind of aggression perpetrated through technology-any type of harassment or bullying (teasing, telling lies, making fun of someone, making rude or mean comments, spreading rumors, or making threatening or aggressive comments) that occurs through email, a chat room, instant messaging, a website (including blogs), or text messaging. Youth is easily deceived, because it is quick to hope. Aristotle The youth is getting the wrong path by the use of this E-Media. Our main aim is to protect our youth from the dangerous effects of E-Media. In E-media we will target specifically the TV media which is accessible by the whole family especially the youth. Further in youth TV is mostly watched by the women of the family. These effects are either caused intentionally or by the negligence of E-media personals. Intentional effects are either for the promotion of their channels. The E-Media personals are displaying the unethical dramas, either the stories are distracting the youth or the scenes of the drama are disturbing and unethical. They provoke the female and male relationships which are considered unethical in our society. Most of the dramas and soaps are based on love stories and relations of married women with young guys. Some TV shows are provoking aggressiveness in our youth. We will mention a program of ARY MUSIK named LIVING ON THE EDGE. This program consists of unethical, immoral and non islamic dares given to the youth of Pakistan. That is done to provoke aggressiveness and to bring our youth to the level of the unethical youths of western countries. He is trying to copy the programs like FEAR FACTOR, RHOADIES etc. Similarly the E-Media personals are provoking nudity. Either that nudity is in full form or half nudity. We use the term half nudity for the scenes in which women or men are wearing inislamic clothes. Wearing sleeveless, wearing Capri, uncovered hair, uncovered belly etc is completely inislamic. Hereby we will mention some channels that have bought the licenses of western movie channels and are showing scenes containing kisses and some other unethical scenes. Channels are ARY DIGITAL who has recently bought license of HBO. Plus there are our cable operators who are showing unethical channels at midnight and at day time. Smoking scenes also provoke the drug addiction in youth. Previously the ads of cigarettes were banned in order to decrease the percentage of people converting to addiction. But now these smoking scenes are consistently being shown in many dramas and shows. When a youngster watches his favorite actor smoking in a TV drama and performing stunts or having lots of girlfriends because of that cigarette then that youngster follows him. Same is the case with scenes containing alcohol and beer. Violent footages are also disturbing for the youth. We see many Indian movies which are showing scenes of fights which are followed by the youngsters. Same is happening here these days all the boys are found to be fighting with each other. They think they are living in their ideal movie and they are the heroes. Wrestling and cartoons are watched by the children and they try to implement that in their real life often damaging either themselves or some other member of family. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM Before examining the state of the news media in todays society, it is important to define what good reporting of news should be. Doris A. Graber, in her book Media Power in Politics, thinks it important to distinguish between news and truth. The function of news is to signalize an event. The function of truth is to bring to light the hidden facts, to set them into relation with each other, and make a picture of reality upon which men can act (Graber, 41). News dissemination, whether through radio broadcast, newspaper articles, or a web site posting, should perform both functions in order to truly inform. Good news can affect society in positive ways. Determined, sweeping coverage of important topics can improve local communities, rid government of improper public officials, save lives, and so many other things. Reporting events and uncovering truths is critical for the news media to perform its function. Media is the pillar of a society. Television is a vital source from which most people receive information. News and media delegates on television have abused their powers over society through the airing of appealing news shows that misinform the public. Through literary research and experimentation, it has been proven that peoples perception of reality has been altered by the information they receive from such programs. Manipulation, misinterpretation, word arrangement, picture placement and timing are all factors and tricks that play a major role in the case. Research, experimentation, and actual media coverage has pinpointed actual methods used for deceptive advertising. Television influences society in many ways. People are easily swayed to accept a belief that they may not normally have unless expressed on television, since many people think that everything they hear on television is true. This, however, is not always the case. It has been observed that over the past twenty to th irty years, normal social behavior, even actual life roles of men and women and media, regulatory policies have all been altered. Media has changed with time, along with quality and respectability. Many people receive and accept false information that is merely used as an attention grabber that better the shows ratings and popularity. This involves sensationalizing a story to make it more interesting, therefore increasing the interest of the audience. People often know that these shows aim to deceive them, but still accept the information as truth. The E-media has severely damaged our youth and provided them with altered and incorrect information. Thus one whole youth of Pakistan is having incorrect information and has inaccurate knowledge which not only is damage for them but for the whole generations which are to come. Following quotes represent the significance of youth; Youth is the trustee of prosperity. Benjamin Disraeli Almost everything that is great has been done by youth. Benjamin Disraeli RESEARCH METHODOLOGY TO BE USED Research methodology is based on interviews and questionnaire. Interviews are conducted from the media personals which include producers, directors, editors and executive producers of different TV channels. And questionnaires are floated among general public to gather their views about todays E-Media. Questionnaire is attached below while the list of interviewees is written below. Executive Producers Hammad Ghaznavi WAQT TV Rukhsana Noor Programs Manager WAQT TV Shah Bilal Programs Manager ATV Arooj Samdhani DUNIYA TV Producers Ahson Tirmazi DUNIYA TV Irfan Asghar DUNIYA TV Farrukh Tango GEO TV Noman Saeed ATV Munawwar Butt ATV Editors Usman Warraich Editor ATV Basit Javed Editor DAWN NEWS FINDINGS RECOMMENDATIONS By conducting the full report and analyzing the findings following recommendations are given; More entertainment channels should be introduced and number of news channels should be decreased as they are creating hypertension. Infotainment quota should be increased. Programs provoking aggression should be banned. Media should not be biased. Producers should show the real culture of our society. Channels should register their ratings. Channel owners involved in unethical and immoral airing should be penalized. Censor board should be made active. Censor board should penalize the parties distracting the youth. Censor board should take strict notice of the cable operators. CONCLUSION E-Media is a very important sector of Pakistan. Along with the advantages of E-Media there are many disadvantages. These disadvantages should be eliminated and E-Media should be utilized to its best. Pakistans E-Media has all the capacity to be among the best. Hence everything is up to censor board. It should be made active and should be given the authority of penalizing and banning. It should take a serious notice of all the activities carried out by the E-media personals.

Mastering The Short Story :: essays research papers

Mastering The Short Story Although I perceive Paul Darcy Boles to be an uppity, egotistic, and somewhat euphorically rambling old man from his style of writing, there is some beneficial information for someone wishing to create a commercially viable short story. However, I feel that creating a story with the goal of marketability is a grave mistake that ruins countless numbers of otherwise perfectly enjoyable works of literature. It is no surprise that this style of writing is being taught to the new generation, which promises to be far more creative than it's predecessors. Boles' first advice is to follow Chekhov's observation: "The art of writing is the art of abbreviation." A story of 3000 words or less has no need for excessive 1 paragraph descriptions. "Today's reader" (whoever that is) has no need for the descriptive style found in older works. So much for Alistair MacLeod. A lot of importance is put on not stringing random sentences together. Each sentence should be aimed towards a specific goal. The sum total of these sentences is your story. Boles' views a sentence as a factor in a mathematical equation. He also gets almost romantic about the sentence as a living, sentient being. Once you shovel the pop-lit drivel where it belongs, you are free to apply his suggestions to your own work. It is a good idea to check your story for too much obvious meaning. Not only will this make the story shorter and clearer, the hidden meanings imbedded in the story will have a chance to be probed and discovered. As well, avoid "signpost" sentences that could easily be replaced by more legitimate conversations or actions. A lot of emphasis is put on simulating a sense of "in-ness"; that is, giving your work a believable lived in feeling. When reading the story, one should have a clear picture of the environment around it's characters, and it is of imperial importance that it is realistic. In conclusion, Boles discusses the important of a strong beginning and

Living to Eat or Eating to Live

Shawn McKee: I’m Shawn McKee staff writer ediets. com. I’m here with Pamela Ofstein- director of Nutrition Services. And today, we are talking about beauty foods. Now, Pam, you know the foods are good to have a†¦.. weight, keep you healthy but can it make beautiful as well?!?! Pamela: Absolutely, a lot of food canreally help you from inside out, so whichyou. †¦. n your body, u can†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦nice-close skin, u can have less wrinkles, u can haveright oilin your skin =>food does a lot: helping you look younger andliving in my 20 (ch? naynenthay =â€Å"fighting aging†(V)chono hay). Iwannacontinue to do that. Shawn:Right. Now I understand that. What foods can we eat? I mean, u brought somethinghere,you’lltalk about somefoods? Pam: No! Absolutely, I just go over what they specifically do, but a lot of these foods can help u with your hair and also for your skin. 1)Vitamin C helps damage skin cancer and protect you from free radicals. (2) Foods like whole wheat, eggs and garlic – they are rich in selenium in can protect skin from sun – also is a good choicebecause it provides for u protein and grainas well. (3) Don’t forget your seafood with omega 3s – they contain essential fatty acids that are important to the skin’s oil barrier,help you have right oilthat can protect you from the sun.Oyster, meat†¦have some zinc and they helpcontrol acne and help your hair more shining. Spinach isanother one. And redpepper is also an essential food. Shawn: Ok. And u saidoilfoods(t konh? nrala food hay fruit @@) are good. Pam: Yes. Oil foods, generally, u know very a lot of in vegetables and fruits- foods have a lot of colors, so u know †¦and orange have a lot of vitamin C => we can’t†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. to diet. (do? nnayba? ynoinhud? hoi i ? ). But carrot,cantaloupe and sweet

With Reference to Alternative Research, Critically Assess Bennett-Levy and Marteau’s Research

There is much research to support the idea of preparedness in the acquisition of phobias, just like Bennett-levy and Marteau have done, however many studies use non-human animals, and use experimental research methods. Cook & Mineka (1989) found that rhesus monkeys could acquire fear through social learning to fear relevant stimuli (toy snakes and crocodiles) but not of fear-irrelevant stimuli (flowers and a toy rabbit). Subsequently, Cook & Mineka (1990), again using rhesus monkeys, showed them edited videotapes of models reacting fearfully to toy snakes and non-fearfully to artificial flowers or vice versa.The observers only acquired a fear in the former condition, i. e. when they watched a monkey responding with fear to a snake. However, there is experimental research that shows that humans can show preparedness. Ohman and Soares (1998) showed that participants could be conditioned more quickly when associated with fear-relevant material, e. g. pictures of snakes or spiders, than when paired with fear-irrelevant material, e. g. picture of flowers or mushrooms. Again showing that fear is more readily associated with some things but not others.Bennett-Levy and Marteau deliberately removed the idea that the animals were harmful; however is this not a reason to fear an animal? One biological imperative for fear is risk of disease. Matchett & Davey (1991) and Ware et al (1994) looked at the relationship between animal fears relating to contamination and to likelihood of attack. They investigated fear of predatory animals and other fear-relevant animals. Both groups of animals elicited fear but only the animals carrying a risk of disease also elicited disgust.Those participants with the greatest fear of the ‘disgusting’ animals also scored highly on scales such as fear of illness and obsessive washing. Further support for this idea comes from Davey et al (1998) who conducted a cross-cultural study into animal fears. They found that, although cultures share fear for animals which are fierce, the greatest similarity was in those eliciting disgust; again indicating a link between phobias and animal-borne disease. The distinction between fear of fierce and infection-risk animals is demonstrated by experimental evidence from Davey et al (2003).They found that people will tend to become classically conditioned to pain responses associated with predatory animals (i. e. fierce ones). Disgustrelated unconditioned stimuli, however, were more readily associated with lowpredation animals (i. e. ones with a disease risk) than with safe ones. There does seem to be reasons for fearing animals, but in the modern comfortable existence that many enjoy, there are few natural things that will damage us and we have little reason to fear, but phobias are one of the commonest disorders in our society.

Lord of the Flies Thesis Paper

Being stranded on an island can be a life or death struggle. It brings up new challenges and self discovery. When a group of young boys get stranded on an island together with no adults, they must learn to live and survive as a community. Not only must they worry about food and shelter, but they also have to worry about each other and discover what it takes to work together. But what happens when the community they have built starts to fall apart?In Golding’s Novel, Lord of the Flies, the contrasting literary themes of civilization versus savagery are illustrated through the use of symbols, dialogue, and visual imagery. Golding uses many symbols throughout his novel to illustrate the contrasting themes of civilization versus savagery. In this novel, the use of the conch represents civilization through unity and order. When the boys first land on the island Ralph uses the conch to join everyone together. â€Å"Signs of life were visible now on the beach.The sand, trembling ben eath the heat haze, concealed many figures in its miles of length; boys were making their way to the platform†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Golding 18). This shows that at the beginning, the conch automatically brought everyone together, and joined them as a community. Later in the story, the lord of the flies represents savagery by symbolizing chaos and disorder. After the boys kill a pig, they leave the head as on offering to the imagined beast. As Simon begins talking to the head, it tells him that it itself is the beast.Later, Ralph encounters the skull of the pig. â€Å"A sick fear and rage swept him. Fiercely he hit out at the filthy thing in front of him that bobbed like a toy and came back, still grinning into his face, so that he lashed and cried out in loathing. † (Golding 185). This shows that the lord of the flies brings out the beast in the children themselves, and shows that all along, they in fact were their own beast. Golding also uses pieces of dialogue to illustrate the co ntrasting themes of civilization versus savagery.In the very beginning, Piggy proves to be the most knowledgeable of the group by trying to keep them civilized and orderly. When the group is talking about building a signal fire to be rescued, Piggy says, â€Å"’How can you expect to be rescued if you don’t put first things first and act proper? ’† (Golding 45). This shows that from the very beginning Piggy thinks there should be order and a clear plan for anything successful to happen on the island. Also around this time, the theme of savagery through dialogue begins with Jack.After hunting for the first time, Jack explains to Ralph that he sent his group back while he continued to hunt by himself. â€Å"’I went on,’ said Jack. ‘I let them go. I had to go to go on. I—‘ He tried to convey the compulsion to track down and kill that was swallowing him up. ‘I went on. I thought by myself—‘ The madness came into his eyes again. ‘I thought I might kill. ’† (Golding 51). This is the beginning of Jack’s transformation from civilized to savage. At this time, killing becomes his priority over all else.Lastly, Golding uses visual imagery throughout his novel to illustrate the contrasting themes of civilization versus savagery. In the beginning, Golding uses visual imagery to represent civilization when Ralph uses the conch to unite everyone together. â€Å"At last Ralph ceased to blow and sat there, the conch trailing from one hand, his head bowed on his knees. As the echoes died away so did the laughter, and there was silence. † (Golding 19). This shows that at the beginning, everyone came together in a civilized manner and was silent so that they could listen to the further conversations that were had.Later, Golding uses visual imagery to represent savagery during the killing of Simon. â€Å"The beast struggled forward, broke the ring, and fell over the st eep edge of the rock to the sand by the water. At once the crowd surged after it, poured down the rock, leapt on to the beast, screamed, struck, bit, tore. There were no words, and no movements but the tearing of teeth and claws. † (Golding 153). This shows that by this point, the only thing the boys cared about was hunting and they would hunt anything they could.This act was only the beginning of murder in this story, and later led to the murder of other boys. In Golding’s Novel, Lord of the Flies, the contrasting literary themes of civilization versus savagery are illustrated through the use of symbols, dialogue, and visual imagery. Though in the beginning many things joined the boys together on the island, in the end, things tore them apart more than could be recovered. Overall, this book conveys the collapse of society in the world through chaos, cruelty, and the lack of leadership and order.

Social Constructivism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Social Constructivism - Essay Example Social constructivism does not distinguish between truth and falsehood, judging both equally suspendable. It leaves no place for the distinction between true and false accounts of nature in its accounts of the development of science. By being uninterested in whether a science is true, by treating truth and falsity equally, that is, by treating unequal as if they were equal, constructivists suspend and fail to see the essential. Whereas it would be a major accomplishment for the sociology of science to explain true knowledge as well as false pretensions of knowledge, it is a major regression for such sociology to obscure the difference between the two. A central theme of social constructivism is that no social practice must be enshrined as a restricted way of getting at truth. No practice can put claim to universal, eternal, or context-free legitimacy. Social constructivists and other postmodernists seek to demystify or deconstruct science's epistemic authority. One route to demystifi cation is to argue that science is just a highly elaborate set of social conventions--a "discursive formation" (Foucault) or "form of life" (Wittgenstein)--which arose in a particular historical setting and captured the loyalty of our culture, but which has no intrinsic claim to epistemic superiority. Translated into our terminology, this position implies that science is veritistically no better than other practices, despite the special reputation it enjoys. The constructivist perspective embodies a number of theoretical tensions stemming. from its attempt to embrace a relativistic epistemology with respect to selected aspects of science while exhibiting a fairly inflexible commitment to epistemological realism in its own work. ( Woolgar 1983: 262) Constructivist sociologists adopt a variety of strategies in their attempt to defend themselves against the criticism that constructivism undermines itself. Some constructivists merely assert that constructivism does not undermine itself, in the hope that repetition will be as effective as argument or evidence. Other constructivists claim that their studies analyze how the original account was arrived at, but have no implications for the truth or falsity of that account. Constructivists thereby only criticize the view that scientists see the world "plainly," "straightforwardly," without skills ( Yearley 1991: 120, 143). Thus constructivist sociology of science has no implications concerning the validity of science, constructivist criminology has little bearing on the